Australia
Australia is the name of both the smallest of the seven continents and of the state which occupies it. Australia is in the Southern Hemisphere, south of Asia, between the Indian Ocean to the west and the South Pacific Ocean to the east. The Commonwealth of Australia is the only sovereign state which occupies an entire continent: it also comprises the island of Tasmania and smaller adjacent islands. Australia has been inhabited by the Australian Aborigines for tens of thousands of years. It was discovered by Europeans in 1606 and claimed for Great Britain by Captain James Cook in 1770. The first European settlement in Australia was established by the British at Sydney on 26 January 1788. The six British colonies in Australia joined to form the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901. Australia is a member of the United Nations and the Commonwealth of Nations, and is a close ally of the United States.
History
Australia was probably first inhabited between 40,000 and 45,000 years ago, but other studies conclude that it may have been much longer ago than this. It is possible that the first inhabitants migrated from Asia.
Before colonisation by the British in 1788, Australia was inhabited by indigenous people called Aborigines. These people lived nomadic lives in tribes, located throughout all of Australia, including the deserts, but especially along the coast. Their population remained stable over the duration of their existence, and they remained hunter-gatherers until the British arrived. Notable inventions by the Aborigines include the boomerang and the didgeridoo. The Aborigines, like many other ethnic groups, were rich in oral tradition. They created mythological stories known collectively as the ‘dreamtime’ stories. These stories cover areas such as the creation of various landmarks, rivers, and star constellations. Many Aborigines exist today, and there is a large ethnically-mixed population with Aboriginal inheritance as well. Some Aboriginals are able to continue their native traditions and some have been assimilated into the larger society, while others remain at odds with society in general and feel that they have not been been adequately compensated for many years of disinfranchisement and mistreatment. Recently, many initiatives have been taken to increase the quality of life of the Aborigines.
A gold rush in the 19th Century caused waves of immigration and led to a period of expansion, political organization and prosperity, but the century closed with a decade long period of economic depression. Australian federation took place on 1st of January, 1901.
Australia played a major role during World War I, most notably in the Battle of Gallipoli, an attempt to open a supply route to Russia, with the ultimate goal of aiding the capture of Constantinople. However, due to poor planning, an underestimation of enemy strength and other factors, the campaign was an overall failure. Despite this, Australians commemorate the landings at Gallipoli and the ensuing battle with ANZAC Day, celebrated in towns and hamlets all across the country.
During World War II, Australia raised forces of 858,000 men out of a population of 7 million. It sent the AIF with most of the army to help the British in Libya and the Middle East, and part of the air force to Britain; it sent troops to Singapore just before it was captured. Japan's thrust to the south, including a "little Pearl Harbor" at Darwin, seemed to threaten an invasion, as the Australians drew up plans to hold the line at Brisbane if invaded. The Japanese did invade New Guinea but when it moved south it was stopped by the U.S. Navy at the Battle of Coral Sea. The Japanese did not plan to invade Australia, but did want to cut the trans-Pacific shipping lines. Australia then shifted to a close alliance with the United States, welcoming theatre commander Douglas MacArthur and putting its combat forces under his command as a million Yanks came through (with 500,000 at the peak in May 1944). Years of jungle fighting drove the Japanese out of New Guinea, and at war's end the Australian army had invaded Borneo.
Australia took part in both the Vietnam War and second Iraq War. The government supports the "War on Terrorism", although, as in the United States, this campaign has both its supporters and detractors in the general population.
States and Territories
Australia is divided into five states and two major territories, as well as several smaller territories with varying degrees of inhabitation. Each state and major territory has a capital city. The capital territory of Australia is the Australian Capital Territory, and the capital city of Australia is Canberra.
Australian Capital Territory (ACT) - Canberra
New South Wales (NSW) - Sydney
Queensland (QLD) - Brisbane
South Australia (SA) - Adelaide
Northern Territory (NT) - Darwin
Western Australia (WA) – Perth
Economy
Australia uses the Australian Dollar (AUD) as its currency. Currently one Australian dollar trades for about 0.8 US Dollars.
Politics
Australia is a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II as its Head of state. She is represented by the Governor General. Australia’s current Head of government is Prime Minister John Howard of the Liberal Party. The opposition is the Labor Party, led by Kevin Rudd. Unlike many other countries, voting is compulsory for all Australian citizens aged 18 or over. Australia has close relations with the United States and Asia, and has special trade treaties with both. Australia currently has a free-trade agreement with the United States.
Bibliography
- Bambrick, Susan ed. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Australia (1994)
- Penney, Barry. Australia - Culture Smart!: a quick guide to customs and etiquette (2006)
- Shaw, John, ed. Collins Australian Encyclopedia (1984)
- Serle. Percival, ed. Dictionary of Australian Biography (1949)online edition
Economics
- Paul Kelly, The End of Certainty: Power, Politics and Business in Australia, Allen & Unwin, 1994,
- Anthony Moran; Australia: Nation, Belonging, and Globalization Routledge, 2004 online edition
Environment and Geography
- Appleton, Richard, and Barbara Appleton. The Cambridge Dictionary of Australian Places (1993)
- Garden, Don. Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific: An Environmental Hisory. ABC-CLIO, 2005. 398 pp.
- Lines, William. Taming the Great South Land: A History of the Conquest of Nature in Australia (1992)
History
- Atkinson, Alan. The Europeans in Australia: A History. Vol. 2: Democracy. Oxford U. Pr., 2005. 440 pp.
- Anthony Barker. What Happened When: A Chronology of Australia from 1788. Allen & Unwin. 2000. online edition
- Bolton, Geoffrey. The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 5: 1942-1995. The Middle Way (2005)
- Clark, Manning. A History of Australia 6 vol (Melbourne University Press, 1962, 1968, 1973, 1978, 1981, and 1987)
- Frank G. Clarke. The History of Australia Greenwood Press. 2002. online edition
- F. K. Crowley; Australia's Western Third: A History of Western Australia from the First Settlements to Modern Times 1960 online edition
- Day, Alan. Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia. Scarecrow, 2003. 321 pp.
- David Day, Claiming a Continent: A New History of Australia (2001);
- Heather Goodall, Invasion to Embassy: Land in Aboriginal Politics in New South Wales, 1770–1972 (Allen&Unwin, 1996)
- Graeme Davison, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. The Oxford Companion to Australian History, (2001)
- Mark Hearn, Harry Knowles, and Ian Cambridge. One Big Union: A History of the Australian Workers Union 1886-1994 (1998)
- Robert Hughes. The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia’s Founding (1988).
- Kemp, Rod, and Marion Stanton, eds. Speaking for Australia: Parliamentary Speeches That Shaped Our Nation Allen & Unwin, 2004 online edition
- Kingston, Beverley. The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 3: 1860-1900 Glad, Confident Morning (1993)
- Kociumbas, Jan. The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 2: 1770-1860 Possessions (1995)
- Macintyre, Stuart. The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 4: 1901-42, the Succeeding Age (1993)
- Macintyre, Stuart. A Concise History of Australia (2004)
- Martin, A. W. Robert Menzies: A Life (2 vol 1993-99), online at ACLS e-books
- Reynolds, Henry. The Other Side of the Frontier: Aboriginal Resistance to the European Invasion of Australia (1990).
International Relations and Military
- Bridge, Carl ed., Munich to Vietnam: Australia's Relations with Britain and the United States since the 1930s, Melbourne University Press 1991
- Peter Dennis, Jeffrey Grey, Ewan Morris, and Robin Prior. The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History. 1996)
- John Murphy. Harvest of Fear: A History of Australia's Vietnam War (1993)
- Firth, Stewart. Australia in International Politics: An Introduction to Australian Foreign Policy Allen & Unwin. 2005. online edition
- Watt, Alan. The Evolution of Australian Foreign Policy 1938–1965, Cambridge University Press, 1967
Culture and society
- Breward, Ian. A History of the Churches in Australasia. Oxford U. Pr., 2002. 474 pp.
- Hilary Carey, Believing in Australia: A Cultural History of Religions (Allen&Unwin, 1996),
- Sylvia Kleinert and Margo Neale. The Oxford Companion to Aboriginal Art and Culture (2001)
- Ian McAllister, Steve Dowrick, Riaz Hassan; The Cambridge Handbook of the Social Sciences in Australia Cambridge University Press, 2003 online edition
- Alan McCulloch. Encyclopedia of Australian Art 2 vol (1984)
- McDonald, John. Federation: Australian Art and Society, 1901-2001. Natl. Gallery of Australia, 2002. 264 pp.
- Nile, Richard. The Making of the Australian Literary Imagination. U. of Queensland Pr., 2002. 315 pp.
- Rickard, John, Australia: A Cultural History (Longman, 1988)
- The Oxford Literary History of Australia.
- Samuels, Selina, ed. Australian Writers, 1915-50. Gale, 2002. 510 pp.
- Elizabeth Webby, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature (2006)