Employment
The concept of employment encompasses a variety of productive activities but has narrower connotations in the fields of law, statistics and economics.
Definitions
The term employment is used colloquially to refer to any human activity devoted to the production of goods and services. In legal terms it has the narrower meaning of a contractual arrangement that gives an employer some measure of control over the activities of an employee, and in national statistics it includes self-employment but excludes unpaid activities and activities in the “shadow economy” that are concealed from the authorities[1].
Employment legislation
Employment legislation imposes statutory requirements upon the relations between employers and employees concerning matters that include working hours, health and safety at work, minimum wage rates, dismissal restrictions and redundancy payments. The levels of employee protection provided by the legislation vary from country to country [2].
Employment statistics
For statistical purposes the population is divided into three categories:
- the employed population;
- the unemployed population; and,
- the economically inactive population.
The first two categories together comprise the working population, consisting of those people of working age who are available for employment (including, in principle, workers in the shadow economy). The third category includes those falling outside the chosen working age definition, the disabled, and those not seeking work for other reasons (sometimes referred to as discouraged workers). It also includes those who provide unpaid services to households. The percentage of the population of working age who are members of the working population is termed the activity rate.
National employment statistics [3] are compiled from employer and household surveys [4], according to internationally-agreed principles [5], but differing in practice from country to country, making comparisons hazardous. The composition of the labour force is normally recorded by sex, industry and occupation [6].
Employment economics
The labour market
The labour market occupies a special place in the interactive network of markets that make up an economy, and it has special implications for the welfare of its people. It affects productive and economic efficiency by its allocation of human resources among alternative activities, and it influences the way that people choose between consumption and leisure. It is made up of a large number of different markets that can be categorised in a variety of ways. Dual labour market theory distinguishes between a "primary segment" of employment for sustained periods such as is referred to as a career, and a "secondary segment" of temporary employment in short-term jobs [7], and a distinction is sometimes made between external labour markets and those that are internal to employing organisations [8].
Most labour markets differ significantly from the perfect market [9] of economic theory. The labour supply is often far from homogeneous, the information available to the parties is usually far from complete, and some degree of market power is often present. The "Walrassian auctioneer" [10] is not an apt analogy for the market process and the deal that is arrived at has the characteristics of an "incomplete contract" [11] in that the responsibilities of employer and employee are not exhaustively specified. For employment that requires training, the existence of an interval between a decision to supply and its implementation introduces additional uncertainties. Those departures from the ideal model affect the process by which the supply of labour is reconciled with its demand.
The supply of labour
The demand for labour
References
- ↑ For estimates of the magnitude of the shadow economy, see that paragraph in the article on gross domestic product
- ↑ NATLEX" (database of national labour and social security legislation) International Labour Organization 2008
- ↑ LABORSTA, International Labour Organization database of national economic statistics
- ↑ Database of Labour Force Surveys, International Labour Organization 2008
- ↑ Standards and Guidelines for economic statistics,
- ↑ International Standard Classification of Occupations
- ↑ Glenn Cain : The Challenge of the Segmented Labor Hypothesis to Orthodox Theory, Journal of Economic Literature 1985
- ↑ Peter Doeringer and Michael Piore: Internal Labor Markets and Manpower Adjustments, D C Heath & Co 1971
- ↑ The concept of a perfect market is defined in the article entitled "market"
- ↑ For an explanation of the Walrassian auctioneer see "The auctionneer analogy" in the article on supply and demand
- ↑ For an account of the economics of incomplete contracts see Eric Brousseau and Jean-Michel Glachant: The Economics of Contracts: Theories and Applications , Cambridge University Press, 2002.