User:John Stephenson/sandbox

Irish orthography has evolved over many centuries, since Old Irish was first written down in the Latin alphabet in about the sixth century AD. Prior to that, Primitive Irish was written in Ogham. Irish spelling is mainly based on etymological considerations, very much like English orthography, although a spelling reform in the mid-20th century simplified the relationship between spelling and pronunciation somewhat.

There are three dialects of spoken Irish: Ulster (now predominantly in County Donegal), Connacht (Counties Mayo and Galway), and Munster (Counties Kerry, Cork, and Waterford). Some spelling conventions are common to all the dialects, while others vary from dialect to dialect. In addition, individual words may have in any given dialect a pronunciation that is not reflected by the spelling (rather like the English word colonel, whose spelling denotes its pronunciation quite poorly).

Alphabet

A sample of Gaelic script.

Prior to the 20th century Irish was usually written using the uncial Gaelic script. The uncial alphabet, together with letter name pronunciations and lenited letters is shown below.

Use of the uncial script is today almost entirely restricted to decorative and/or self-consciously traditional contexts. The dot above the lenited letter is usually substituted with a following h in the standard Roman alphabet. The only other use of h Irish is for vowel-initial words after certain proclitics (e.g. go hÉireann 'to Ireland) and for words of foreign derivation such as hata 'hat'.

The alphabet now used for writing the Irish language consists of the following letters, written in antiqua:

a á b c d e é f g h i í l m n o ó p r s t u ú;

Modern loanwords also make use of j k q v w x y z. Of these, j and v are the most common. The letters' names are spelt out thus:

á bé cé dé é eif gé héis í eil eim ein ó pé ear eas té ú

along with jé cá cú vé wae eacs yé zae.

Tree names were once popularly used to name the letters. Tradition taught that they all derived from the names of the Ogham letters, though it is now known that only some of the earliest Ogham letters were named for trees.

ailm (white fir), beith (birch), coll (hazel), dair (oak), edad/eabhadh (poplar), fern/fearn (alder), gath/gort (ivy), uath (hawthorn), idad/íodhadh (yew), luis (rowan), muin (vine), nin/nion (ash), onn (gorse), peith (dwarf alder), ruis (holander), sail (willow), tinne/teithne (holly), úr (heather)

Although the uncial script remained common until the mid-20th century, efforts to introduce antiqua began much earlier. Theobald Stapleton's 1639 catechism was printed in antiqua, and also introduced simplified spellings such as suí for suidhe and uafás for uathbhás, though these did not become standard for another 300 years.

Consonants

The consonant letters generally correspond to the consonant phonemes as shown in this table. See Irish phonology for an explanation of the symbols used and Irish initial mutations for an explanation of eclipsis. In most cases, consonants are 'broad' (velarized) when the nearest vowel letter is one of a, o, u and 'slender' (palatalized) when the nearest vowel letter is one of e, i.

Letter(s)		Phoneme(s)	Examples
b	broad	/bˠ/	bain /bˠanʲ/ 'take' (imper.), scuab /sˠkuəbˠ/ 'broom'
	slender	/bʲ/	béal /bʲeːɫ̪/ 'mouth', cnáib /kn̪ˠaːbʲ/ 'hemp'
bh	broad	/w/	bhain /wanʲ/ 'took', ábhar /ˈaːwəɾˠ/ 'material', Bhairbre /ˈwaɾʲəbʲɾʲə/ 'Barbara' (genitive), tábhachtach /ˈt̪ˠaːwəxtəx/ 'important', dubhaigh /ˈd̪ˠʊwiː/ 'blacken' (imper.), scríobh /ʃcrʲiːw/ 'wrote', taobh /t̪ˠiːw/ 'side', dubh /d̪ˠʊw/ 'black', gabh /gaw/ 'get' (imper.)
	slender	/vʲ/	bhéal /vʲeːɫ̪/ 'mouth' (lenited), cuibhreann /ˈkɪvʲɾʲən̪ˠ/ 'common table', aibhneacha /ˈavʲnʲəxə/ 'rivers', sibh /ʃɪvʲ/ 'you' (pl.)
	See vowel chart for abh, eabh, obh
bhf (eclipsis of f-)	broad	/w/	bhfuinneog /ˈwɪnʲoːg/ 'window' (eclipsed)
	slender	/vʲ/	bhfíon /vʲiːn̪ˠ/ 'wine' (eclipsed)
bp (eclipsis of p-)	broad	/bˠ/	bpoll /bˠoːɫ̪/ 'hole' (eclipsed)
	slender	/bʲ/	bpríosún /ˈbʲɾʲiːsˠuːn̪ˠ/ 'prison' (eclipsed)
c	broad	/k/	cáis /kaːʃ/ 'cheese', mac /mˠak/ 'son'
	slender	/c/	ceist /cɛʃtʲ/ 'question', mic /mʲɪc/ 'sons'
ch	broad (Always broad before t.)	/x/	cháis /xaːʃ/ 'cheese' (lenited), taoiseach /ˈt̪ˠiːʃəx/ 'chieftain' (also the term for the Prime Minister of Ireland), boichte /bˠɔxtʲə/ 'poorer'
	slender	/ç/ /h/ between vowels	cheist /çɛʃtʲ/ 'question' (lenited), deich /dʲɛç/ 'ten' oíche /ˈiːhə/ 'night'
d	broad	/d̪ˠ/	dorn /d̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ 'fist', nead /nʲad̪ˠ/ 'nest'
	slender	/dʲ/	dearg /dʲaɾˠəg/ 'red', cuid /kɪdʲ/ 'part'
dh	broad	/ɣ/ word-initially Silent after a long vowel	dhorn /ɣoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ 'fist' (lenited) ádh /aː/ 'luck'
	slender	/j/	dhearg /ˈjaɾˠəg/ 'red' (lenited), fáidh /fˠaːj/ 'prophet'
	See vowel chart for adh, aidh, eadh, eidh, idh, oidh, odh. See Special pronunciations in verb forms for -dh at the end of verbs.
dt (eclipsis of t-)	broad	/d̪ˠ/	dtaisce /ˈd̪ˠaʃcə/ 'treasure' (eclipsed)
	slender	/dʲ/	dtír /dʲiːɾʲ/ 'country' (eclipsed)
f	broad	/fˠ/	fós /fˠoːsˠ/ 'still', graf /gɾˠafˠ/ 'graph'
	slender	/fʲ/	fíon /fʲiːn̪ˠ/ 'wine', stuif /sˠt̪ˠɪfʲ/ 'stuff'
	See Special pronunciations in verb forms for -f- in future and conditional tenses
fh (lenition of f-)		silent	fhuinneog /ˈɪnʲoːg/ 'window' (lenited), fhíon /iːn̪ˠ/ 'wine' (lenited)
g	broad	/g/	gasúr /ˈgasˠuːɾˠ/ 'boy', bog /bˠɔg/ 'soft'
	slender	/ɟ/	geata /ˈɟat̪ˠə/ 'gate', carraig /ˈkaɾˠəɟ/ 'rock'
gc (eclipsis of c-)	broad	/g/	gcáis /gaːʃ/ 'cheese' (eclipsed)
	slender	/ɟ/	gceist /ɟɛʃtʲ/ 'question' (eclipsed)
gh	broad	/ɣ/ (word-initially) silent after a long vowel	ghasúr /ˈɣasˠuːɾˠ/ 'boy' (lenited) Eoghan /ˈoːən̪ˠ/ 'Owen'
	slender	/j/	gheata /ˈjat̪ˠə/ 'gate' (lenited), dóigh /d̪ˠoːj/ 'way, manner'
	See vowel chart for agh, aigh, eigh, igh, ogh, oigh. See Special pronunciations in verb forms for -(a)igh at the end of verbs.
h		/h/	hata /ˈhat̪ˠə/ 'hat', na héisc /nə heːʃc/ 'the fish' (plural)
l, ll	broad	/ɫ̪/	luí /ɫ̪iː/ 'lying (down)', poll /poːɫ̪/ 'hole'
	slender	/lʲ/	leisciúil /ˈlʲɛʃcuːlʲ/ 'lazy', coill /kailʲ/ 'woods'
m	broad	/mˠ/	mór /mˠoːɾˠ/ 'big', am /aːmˠ/ 'time'
	slender	/mʲ/	milis /ˈmʲilʲəʃ/ 'sweet', im /iːmʲ/ 'butter'
mb (eclipsis of b-)	broad	/mˠ/	mbaineann /ˈmˠanʲən̪ˠ/ 'takes' (eclipsed)
	slender	/mʲ/	mbéal /mʲeːɫ̪/ 'mouth' (eclipsed)
mh	(broad)	/w/	mhór /woːɾˠ/ 'big' (lenited), lámha /ˈɫ̪aːwə/ 'hands', léamh /lʲeːw/ 'reading'
	(slender)	/vʲ/	mhilis /ˈvʲilʲəʃ/ 'sweet' (lenited), uimhir /ˈɪvʲəɾʲ/ 'number', nimh /nʲɪvʲ/ 'poison'
	See vowel chart for amh, eamh, omh
n, nn	broad	/n̪ˠ/	naoi /n̪ˠiː/ 'nine', ceann /caːn̪ˠ/ 'head'
	slender	/nʲ/	neart /nʲaɾˠt̪ˠ/ 'strength', tinneas /ˈtʲɪnʲəsˠ/ 'illness'
nc	broad	/ŋk/	ancaire /ˈaŋkəɾʲə/ 'anchor'
	slender	/ɲc/	rinc /ɾˠɪɲc/ 'dance'
nd (eclipsis of d-)	broad	/n̪ˠ/	ndorn /n̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ 'fist' (eclipsed)
	slender	/nʲ/	ndearg /ˈnʲaɾˠəg/ 'red' (eclipsed)
ng	broad	/ŋ/ word-initially (eclipsis of g-) /ŋg/ word-internally and finally	ngasúr /ˈŋasˠuːɾˠ/ 'boy' (eclipsed) long /ɫ̪uːŋg/ 'ship', teanga /ˈtʲaŋgə/ 'tongue'
	slender	/ɲ/ word-initially (eclipsis of g-) /ɲɟ/ word-internally and finally	ngeata /ˈɲat̪ˠə/ 'gate' (eclipsed) cuing /kɪɲɟ/ 'yoke', ingear /ˈɪɲɟəɾˠ/ 'vertical'
		/nʲ/ in final unstressed -ing	scilling /ˈʃcilʲənʲ/ 'shilling'
p	broad	/pˠ/	poll /pˠoːɫ̪/ 'hole', stop /sˠt̪ˠɔpˠ/ 'stop'
	slender	/pʲ/	príosún /ˈpʲɾʲiːsˠuːn̪ˠ/ 'prison', truip /t̪ˠɾˠɪpʲ/ 'trip'
ph	broad	/fˠ/	pholl /fˠoːɫ̪ʲ/ 'hole' (lenited)
	slender	/fʲ/	phríosún /ˈfʲɾʲiːsˠuːn̪ˠ/ 'prison' (lenited)
r	broad (Always broad word-initially. Always broad in rt, rth, rd, rn, rl, rs, sr.)	/ɾˠ/	rí /ɾˠiː/ 'king', cuairt /kuəɾˠtʲ/ 'visit', oirthear /ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ/ 'east', airde /aːɾˠdʲə/ 'height', coirnéal /ˈkoːɾˠnʲeːɫ̪/ 'corner', duirling /ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠlʲənʲ/ 'stony beach', sreang /sˠɾˠaŋg/ 'string'
	slender	/rʲ/	tirim /ˈtʲɪɾʲəmʲ/ 'dry'
rr		/ɾˠ/	barr /baːɾˠ/ 'tip, point', cairr /kaːɾˠ/ 'car' (genitive)
s	broad	/sˠ/ (Always broad word-initially before m, p, r.)	Sasana /ˈsˠasˠən̪ˠə/ 'England', tús /t̪ˠuːsˠ/ 'beginning', speal /sˠpʲaɫ̪/ 'scythe', sméar /sˠmʲeːɾˠ/ 'blackberry', sreang /sˠɾˠaŋg/ 'string'
	slender	/ʃ/	sean /ʃan̪ˠ/ 'old', cáis /kaːʃ/ 'cheese'
sh	broad	/h/	Shasana /ˈhasˠən̪ˠə/ 'England' (lenited)
	slender	/h/ /ç/ before /aː, oː, u(ː)/	shean /han̪ˠ/ 'old' (lenited) Sheáin /çaːnʲ/ 'John' (genitive), sheol /çoːɫ̪/ 'sailed', shiúil /çuːlʲ/ 'walked', shiopa /ˈçʊpˠə/ 'shop' (lenited)
t	broad	/t̪ˠ/	taisce /ˈt̪ˠaʃcə/ 'treasure', ceart /caɾˠt̪ˠ/ 'correct'
	slender	/tʲ/	tír /tʲiːɾʲ/ 'country', beirt /bʲɛɾˠtʲ/ 'two (people)'
	See Special pronunciations in verb forms for -t- in verbal adjectives
th	broad	/h/	thaisce /ˈhaʃcə/ 'treasure' (lenited), athair /ˈahəɾʲ/ 'father'
	slender	/h/ /ç/ when lenited from /tʲaː-, tʲoː-, tʲu(ː)-/	theanga /ˈhaŋgə/ 'tongue' (lenited) theann /çaːn̪ˠ/ 'tight' (lenited), theocht /çoːxt̪ˠ/ 'heat' (lenited), thiúilip /ˈçuːlʲəpʲ/ 'tulip' (lenited), thiocfadh /ˈçʊkəx/ 'would come', thiubh /çʊw/ 'thick' (lenited)
	Silent at the end of a syllable		bláth /bˠɫ̪aː/ 'blossom', cith /cɪ/ 'shower', cothrom /ˈkɔɾˠəmˠ/ 'equal'
	See Special pronunciations in verb forms for -th- in verbal adjectives
ts (special lenition of s- after an 'the')	broad	/t̪ˠ/	an tsolais /ən̪ˠ ˈt̪ˠɔɫ̪əʃ/ 'of the light'
	slender	/tʲ/	an tSín /ənʲ tʲiːnʲ/ 'China'
v	broad	/w/	vóta /ˈwoːt̪ˠə/ 'vote'
	slender	/vʲ/	veidhlín /ˈvʲailʲiːnʲ/ 'violin'

Vowels

The following chart indicates how written vowels are generally pronounced. Each dialect has certain divergences from this general scheme.

Letter(s)		Phoneme	Examples
a	stressed	/a/	fan /fˠan̪ˠ/ 'stay' (imper.)
		/aː/ before rl, rn, rd before syllable-final ll, nn, rr before word-final m	tarlú /ˈt̪ˠaːɾˠɫ̪uː/ 'happening', carnán /ˈkaːɾˠn̪ˠaːn̪ˠ/ '(small) heap', garda /ˈgaːɾˠd̪ˠə/ 'policeman' mall /mˠaːɫ̪/ 'slow, late', ann /aːn̪ˠ/ 'there', barr /bˠaːɾˠ/ 'tip, point' am /aːmˠ/ 'time'
	unstressed	/ə/	ólann /ˈoːɫ̪ən̪ˠ/ 'drink' (present), mála /ˈmˠaːɫ̪ə/ 'bag'
á		/aː/	bán /bˠaːn̪ˠ/ 'white'
abh(a(i))	stressed	/au/	abhainn /aunʲ/ 'river', cabhrach /ˈkauɾˠəx/ 'helpful'
adh(a(i))	stressed	/ai/	adhairt /aiɾˠtʲ/ 'pillow', Tadhg /t̪ˠaig/ (man's name)
adh	unstressed	/ə/	margadh /ˈmˠaɾˠəgə/ 'market'
	See also Special pronunciations in verb forms
ae(i)		/eː/	Gaelach /ˈgeːɫ̪əx/ 'Gaelic', Gaeilge /ˈgeːlʲɟə/ 'Irish (language)'
agh(a(i))		/ai/	aghaidh /aij/ 'face', saghsanna /ˈsˠaisˠən̪ˠə/ 'sorts, kinds'
ai	stressed	/a/	baile /ˈbˠalʲə/ 'home'
		/aː/ before rl, rn, rd before syllable-final ll, nn, rr	airne /aːɾˠnʲə/ 'sloe' caillte /ˈkaːlʲtʲə/ 'lost, ruined', crainn /kɾˠaːnʲ/ 'trees'
		/ɛ/ before bh in a handful of words	raibh /ɾˠɛvʲ/ 'was' (dependent), daibhir /ˈd̪ˠɛvəɾʲ/ 'poor', saibhir /ˈsˠɛvʲərʲ/ 'rich'
	unstressed	/ə/	eolais /ˈoːɫ̪əʃ/ 'knowledge' (genitive)
ái		/aː/	dáil /d̪ˠaːlʲ/ 'assembly', gabháil /ˈgawaːlʲ/ 'taking'
aí		/iː/	maígh /mˠiːj/ 'claim' (imper.), gutaí /ˈgʊt̪ˠiː/ 'vowels'
aidh, aigh	stressed	/ai/	aidhm /aimʲ/ 'aim', saighdiúir /ˈsˠaidʲuːrʲ/ 'soldier'
	unstressed	/iː/	cleachtaidh /ˈclʲaxt̪ˠiː/ 'practice' (genitive), bacaigh /ˈbˠakiː/ 'beggar' (genitive)
	See also Special pronunciations in verb forms
aío		/iː/	naíonán /ˈn̪ˠiːn̪ˠaːn̪ˠ/ 'infant', beannaíonn /ˈbʲan̪ˠiːn̪ˠ/ 'blesses'
amh(a(i))		/au/	Samhain /sˠaunʲ/ 'November', amhantar /ˈaun̪ˠt̪ˠəɾˠ/ 'venture', ramhraigh /ˈɾˠauɾˠiː/ 'fattened'
ao		/iː/	saol /sˠiːɫ̪/ 'life, world'
		/eː/ in the word aon /eːn̪ˠ/ 'one' and its derivatives, e.g. aontacht /ˈeːn̪ˠt̪ˠəxt̪ˠ/ 'union', na Stáit Aontaithe /n̪ˠə sˠt̪ˠaːtʲ ˈeːn̪ˠt̪ˠəhə/ 'the United States'
aoi		/iː/	gaois /giːʃ/ 'shrewdness'
e	stressed	/ɛ/	te /tʲɛ/ 'hot'
	unstressed	/ə/	míle /ˈmʲiːlʲə/ 'thousand'
é		/eː/	sé /ʃeː/ 'he'
ea	stressed	/a/	bean /bʲan̪ˠ/ 'woman'
		/aː/ before rl, rn, rd before syllable-final ll, nn, rr	bearna /ˈbʲaːɾˠn̪ˠə/ 'gap' feall /fʲaːɫ̪/ 'treachery', feanntach /ˈfʲaːn̪ˠt̪ˠəx/ 'severe'
		/ɔ/ in the word beag /bʲɔg/ 'small'
	unstressed	/ə/	seisean /ˈʃɛʃən̪ˠ/ 'he' (emph.)
éa		/eː/	déanamh /ˈdʲeːn̪ˠəw/ 'doing', buidéal /ˈbˠɪdʲeːɫ̪/ 'bottle'
eá		/aː/	Seán /ʃaːn̪ˠ/ 'John' caisleán /ˈkaʃlʲaːn̪ˠ/ 'castle'
eabh(a(i))		/au/	leabhair /lʲauɾʲ/ 'books' Feabhra /ˈfʲauɾˠə/ 'February'
eadh(a(i)	stressed	/ai/	meadhg /mʲaig/ 'whey'
-eadh	unstressed	/ə/	briseadh /ˈbʲɾʲɪʃə/ 'breaking'
	See also Special pronunciations in verb forms
eai		/a/	veain /vʲanʲ/ 'van'
eái		/aː/	meáin /mʲaːnʲ/ 'middles', caisleáin /ˈkaʃlʲaːnʲ/ 'castles'
eamh(a(i))		/au/	sleamhain /ʃlʲaunʲ/ 'smooth', leamhnacht /ˈlʲaun̪ˠəxt̪ˠ/ 'new milk'
ei		/ɛ/	ceist /cɛʃtʲ/ 'question'
		/ɪ/ before m, mh, n	creimeadh /ˈcɾʲɪmʲə/ 'corrosion, erosion', geimhreadh /ˈɟɪvʲrʲə/ 'winter', seinm /ˈʃɪnʲəmʲ/ 'playing'
		/eː/ before rl, rn, rd	eirleach /ˈeːɾˠlʲəx/ 'destruction', ceirnín /ˈceːɾˠnʲiːnʲ/ 'record album', ceird /ceːɾˠdʲ/ 'trade, craft'
		/ai/ before syllable-final ll	feill- /fʲailʲ/ 'exceedingly'
		/iː/ before syllable-final nn and word-final m	greim /ɟɾʲiːmʲ/ 'grip'
éi		/eː/	scéimh /ʃceːvʲ/ 'beauty', páipéir /ˈpˠaːpʲeːɾʲ/ 'papers'
eidh(i/ea), eigh(i/ea)		/ai/	feidhm /fʲaimʲ/ 'function', leigheas /lʲaisˠ/ 'healing'
eo		/oː/	ceol /coːɫ̪/ 'music', baileofar /ˈbˠalʲoːfˠəɾˠ/ 'one will gather'
		/ɔ/ in the words anseo /ənʲˈʃɔ/ 'here', deoch /dʲɔx/ 'a drink', eochair /ˈɔxəɾʲ/ 'a key', and seo /ʃɔ/ 'this'
eoi		/oː/	dreoilín /ˈdʲɾʲoːlʲiːnʲ/ 'wren', baileoimid /ˈbˠalʲoːmʲədʲ/ 'we will gather'
i	stressed	/ɪ/	pic /pʲɪc/ 'pitch', ifreann /ˈɪfʲɾʲən/ 'hell'
		/iː/ before syllable-final ll, nn before word-final m	cill /ciːlʲ/ 'church', cinnte /ˈciːnʲtʲə/ 'sure' im /iːmʲ/ 'butter'
	unstressed	/ə/	faoistin /ˈfˠiːʃtʲənʲ/ 'confession'
í		/iː/	gnímh /ɟnʲiːvʲ/ 'act, deed' (gen.), cailín /ˈkalʲiːnʲ/ 'girl'
ia		/iə/	Diarmaid /dʲiərmədʲ/ 'Dermot'
iai		/iə/	bliain /bʲlʲiənʲ/ 'year'
idh, igh	unstressed	/iː/	tuillidh /ˈt̪ˠɪlʲiː/ 'addition' (gen.), coiligh /ˈkɛlʲiː/ 'rooster' (gen.)
	See also Special pronunciations in verb forms
io		/ɪ/ before coronals and th	fios /fʲɪsˠ/ 'knowledge', bior /bʲɪɾˠ/ 'spit, spike', cion /cɪn̪ˠ/ 'affection', giota /ˈɟɪt̪ˠə/ 'bit, piece', giodam /ˈɟɪd̪ˠəmˠ/ 'restlessness', friotháil /ˈfʲɾʲɪhaːlʲ/ 'attention'
		/ʊ/ before noncoronals	siopa /ˈʃʊpˠə/ 'shop', liom /lʲʊmˠ/ 'with me', tiocfaidh /ˈtʲʊkiː/ 'will come', Siobhán /ˈʃʊwaːn̪ˠ/ 'Joan', briogáid /ˈbʲɾʲʊgaːdʲ/ 'brigade', tiomáin /ˈtʲʊmaːnʲ/ 'drive' (imper.), ionga /ˈʊŋgə/ '(finger)nail'
		/iː/ before syllable-final nn	fionn /fʲiːn̪ˠ/ 'light-haired'
ío		/iː/	síol /ʃiːɫ̪/ 'seed'
iu		/ʊ/	fliuch /fʲlʲʊx/ 'wet'
iú		/uː/	siúl /ʃuːɫ̪/ 'walk', bailiú /ˈbˠalʲuː/ 'gathering'
iúi		/uː/	ciúin /cuːnʲ/ 'quiet', inniúil /ˈɪnʲuːlʲ/ 'able, fit'
o	stressed	/ɔ/	post /pˠɔsˠt̪ˠ/ 'post'
		/ʊ/ before n, m	Donncha /ˈd̪ˠʊn̪əxə/ (man's name), cromóg /ˈkɾˠʊmˠoːg/ 'hooked nose'
		/oː/ before rl, rn, rd before syllable-final ll, rr	bord /bˠoːɾˠd̪ˠ/ 'table', orlach /ˈoːɾˠɫ̪əx/ 'inch' poll /pˠoːɫ̪/ 'hole', corr /koːɾˠ/ 'odd'
		/uː/ before syllable-final nn before word-final m, ng	fonn /fˠuːn̪ˠ/ 'desire, inclination' trom /t̪ˠɾˠuːmˠ/ 'heavy', long /ɫ̪uːŋg/ 'ship'
	unstressed	/ə/	mo /mˠə/ 'my', cothrom /ˈkɔɾˠəmˠ/ 'equal'
ó		/oː/	póg /pˠoːg/ 'kiss', armónach /ˈaɾˠəmˠoːn̪əx/ 'harmonic'
obh(a(i)), odh(a(i)), ogh(a(i))		/au/	lobhar /ɫ̪auɾˠ/ 'leper', bodhar /bˠauɾˠ/ 'deaf', rogha /ɾˠau/ 'choice'
oi	stressed	/ɛ/	scoil /sˠkɛlʲ/ 'school', troid /t̪ˠɾˠɛdʲ/ 'fight' (imper.), toitín /ˈt̪ˠɛtʲiːnʲ/ 'cigarette', oibre /ˈɛbʲɾʲə/ 'work' (gen.), thoir /hɛɾʲ/ 'in the east', cloiche /ˈkɫ̪ɛhə/ 'stone' (gen.)
		/ɔ/ before s, cht, rs, rt, rth	cois /kɔʃ/ 'foot' (dat.), cloisfidh /ˈkɫ̪ɔʃiː/ 'will hear', boicht /bˠɔxtʲ/ 'poor' (gen. sg. masc.), doirse /ˈd̪ɔɾˠʃə/ 'doors', goirt /gɔɾˠtʲ/ 'salty', oirthear /ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ/ 'east'
		/ɪ/ next to n, m, mh	anois /əˈn̪ˠɪʃ/ 'now', gloine /ˈgɫ̪ɪnʲə/ 'glass', cnoic /kn̪ˠɪc/ 'hills', roimh /ɾˠɪvʲ/ 'before', coimeád /ˈkɪmʲaːd̪ˠ/ 'keep' (imper.), loinge /ˈɫ̪ɪɲɟə/ 'ship' (gen.)
		/ai/ before syllable-final ll	coill /kailʲ/ 'forest, woods', coillte /ˈkailʲtʲə/ 'forests'
		/iː/ before syllable-final nn and word-final m	foinn /fˠiːnʲ/ 'wish' (gen.), droim /d̪ˠɾˠiːmʲ/ 'back'
		/oː/ before rl, rn, rd	coirnéal /ˈkoːɾˠnʲeːɫ̪/ 'corner', oird /oːɾˠdʲ/ 'sledgehammers'
	unstressed	/ə/	éadroime /eːdrəmʲə/ 'lightness'
ói		/oː/	móin /mˠoːnʲ/ 'sod, turf', bádóir /ˈbˠaːd̪ˠoːrʲ/ 'boatman'
oí		/iː/	croíleacán /ˈkɾˠiːlʲəkaːn̪ˠ/ 'core'
oidh(i/ea), oigh(i/ea)		/ai/	oidhre /airʲə/ 'heir', loighic /ɫ̪aic/ 'logic'
oío		/iː/	croíonna /ˈkɾˠiːn̪ˠə/ 'hearts'
omh(a(i))		/oː/	tomhail /t̪ˠoːlʲ/ 'consume' (imper.), Domhnach /ˈd̪ˠoːn̪ˠəx/ 'Sunday'
u	stressed	/ʊ/	dubh /d̪ˠʊw/ 'black'
		/ɔ/ in English loanwords, corresponds to /ʌ/	bus /bˠɔsˠ/, club /kɫ̪ɔbˠ/
		/uː/ before rl, rn, rd	burla /ˈbˠuːɾˠɫ̪ə/ 'bundle', murnán /ˈmˠuːɾˠn̪ˠaːn̪ˠ/ 'ankle', urlár /ˈuːɾˠɫ̪aːɾˠ/ 'floor'
	unstressed	/ə/	agus /ˈagəs/ 'and'
ú		/uː/	tús /t̪ˠuːsˠ/ 'beginning'
ua		/uə/	fuar /fˠuəɾˠ/ 'cold'
uai		/uə/	fuair /fˠuəɾʲ/ 'got'
ui	stressed	/ɪ/	duine /ˈd̪ˠɪnʲə/ 'person'
		/ʊ/ before cht, rs, rt	tuirseach /ˈt̪ˠʊɾˠʃəx/ 'tired', cluichte /ˈkɫ̪ʊxtʲə/ 'harassment' (gen.)
		/iː/ before syllable-final ll, nn before word-final m	tuillteanach /ˈt̪ˠiːlʲtʲən̪ˠəx/ 'deserving', puinn /pˠiːnʲ/ 'much' suim /sˠiːmʲ/ 'interest'
		/uː/ before rl, rn, rd	duirling /ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠlʲənʲ/ 'stony beach', tuirne /ˈt̪ˠuːɾˠnʲə/ 'spinning wheel'
	unstressed	/ə/	aguisín /ˈagəʃiːnʲ/ 'addition'
úi		/uː/	súil /suːlʲ/ 'eye', cosúil /ˈkɔsˠuːlʲ/ 'like, resembling'
uí		/iː/	buígh /bˠiːj/ 'turn yellow' (imper.)
uío		/iː/	buíon /bˠiːn̪ˠ/ 'band, troop'

Observations

• When e, é, i, or í come after or before a consonant, they make the consonant slender.
• Between a consonant and a vowel, or vice-versa, e and i are usually silent, and just indicate that the adjacent consonants are slender. However, they may be pronounced in the digraphs ei, ia, io, oi, ui.
• The accented letters é and í are always pronounced.
• In digraphs and trigraphs containing a vowel with an acute accent (known in Irish as a fada or síneadh fada), only the accented vowel is normally pronounced.

Epenthetic (inserted) vowel

In a sequence of short vowel + /l, r, n/ + labial or velar consonant an unwritten /ə/ gets pronounced between the /l, r, n/ and the following consonant:

• gorm /ˈgɔɾˠəmˠ/ 'blue'
• dearg /ˈdʲaɾˠəg/ 'red'
• dorcha /ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəxə/ 'dark'
• ainm /ˈanʲəmʲ/ 'name'
• seanchaí /ˈʃan̪ˠəxiː/ 'storyteller'
• leanbh /ˈlʲan̪ˠəw/ 'child'
• colm /ˈkɔɫ̪əm/ 'dove'

There is no epenthesis before voiceless stops or after long vowels and diphthongs:

• corp /kɔɾˠpˠ/ 'body'
• olc /ɔɫ̪k/ 'bad'
• téarma /tʲeːɾˠmˠə/ 'term'
• dualgas /ˈd̪ˠuəɫ̪gəsˠ/ 'duty'

Special pronunciations in verb forms

In verb forms some letters and letter combinations are pronounced differently from elsewhere.

In the imperfect, conditional, and imperative, -dh is pronounced /tʲ/ before a pronoun beginning with s-:

• mholadh sé /ˈwɔɫ̪ətʲ ʃeː/ 'he used to praise'
• bheannódh sibh /ˈvʲan̪ˠoːtʲ ʃɪvʲ/ 'you (pl.) would bless'
• osclaíodh sí /ˈɔsˠkɫ̪iːtʲ ʃiː/ 'let her open'

Otherwise it is pronounced /x/:

• mholadh an buachaill /ˈwɔɫ̪əx ə ˈbˠuəxəlʲ/ 'the boy used to praise'
• bheannódh na cailíní /ˈvʲanoːx n̪ˠə ˈkalʲiːnʲiː/ 'the girls would bless'
• osclaíodh Siobhán /ˈɔsˠkɫ̪iːx ˈʃʊwaːn̪ˠ/ 'let Siobhán open'

In the preterite impersonal, -dh is pronounced /w/:

• moladh é /ˈmˠɔɫ̪əw eː/ 'he was praised'
• beannaíodh na cailíní /ˈbʲan̪iːw nə ˈkalʲiːnʲiː/ 'the girls were blessed'

-(a)idh and -(a)igh are pronounced /ə/ before a pronoun, otherwise /iː/:

• molfaidh mé /ˈmˠɔɫ̪hə mʲeː/ 'I will praise'
• molfaidh Seán /ˈmˠɔɫ̪hiː ʃaːn/ 'Seán will praise'
• bheannaigh mé /ˈvʲan̪ˠə mʲeː/ 'I blessed'
• bheannaigh Seán /ˈvʲan̪ˠiː ʃaːn/ 'Seán blessed'

In the future and conditional, f (broad or slender) has the following effects:

1. After vowels and sonorants (/ɫ̪ lʲ mˠ mʲ n̪ˠ nʲ ɾˠ ɾʲ/) it is pronounced /h/:
   • molfaidh /ˈmˠɔɫ̪hiː/ 'will praise'
   • dhófadh /ˈɣoːhəx/ 'would burn'
   • déarfaidh /ˈdʲeːɾˠhiː/ 'will say'
2. It makes a voiced obstruent (/bˠ bʲ vʲ d̪ˠ g/) or /w/ voiceless:
   • scuabfadh /ˈsˠkuəpəx/ 'would sweep'
   • goidfidh /ˈgɛtʲiː/ 'will steal'
   • leagfadh /ˈlʲakəx/ 'would lay'
   • scríobhfaidh /ˈʃcɾʲiːfˠiː/ 'will write'
   • shnámhfadh /ˈhn̪ˠaːfˠəx/ 'would swim'
3. It is silent after a voicless obstruent (/k c x ç pˠ pʲ sˠ ʃ t̪ˠ tʲ/)
   • brisfidh /ˈbʲɾʲɪʃiː/ 'will break'
   • ghlacfadh /ˈɣɫ̪akəx/ 'would accept'
4. But in the future and conditional impersonal f is often /fˠ, fʲ/
   • molfar /ˈmˠɔɫ̪fˠəɾˠ/ 'one will praise'
   • dhófaí /ˈɣoːfˠiː/ 'one would burn'
   • scuabfar /ˈsˠkuəbˠfˠəɾˠ/ 'one will sweep'
   • brisfear /ˈbʲɾʲɪʃfʲəɾˠ/ 'one will break'
5. In the past participle th (also t after d) is silent but makes a voiced obstruent voiceless:
   • scuabtha /ˈsˠkuəpˠə/ 'swept'
   • troidte /ˈt̪ˠɾˠɛtʲə/ 'fought'
   • ruaigthe /ˈɾˠuəcə/ 'chased'

References

• Ó Baoill DP (1986) Lárchanúint don Ghaeilge. Dublin: The Linguistics Institute of Ireland. ISBN 0946452067.
• Ó Siadhail M (1988) Learning Irish. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300042248.