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'''Earth science''', or '''geoscience''', is the study of [[planet]] [[Earth]]. More specifically, 'Earth sciences' refers to those sciences that deal with the study of the [[Earth]], its components and processes. Earth science includes those fields that study the firmament (the [[lithosphere]] or ground that makes up the land and the ocean floor), the waters (the [[hydrosphere]] which includes the [[ocean]]s, the seas, rivers, lakes and so forth), and the [[atmosphere]] itself, the air around us. The study of other planet's atmospheres and lithospheres is often considered part of the Earth sciences, expecially in the case of [[terrestrial planets]]. As a consequence, the Earth sciences have a strong multidisciplinary character.
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{{dambigbox|Earth science|Earth}}
{{Image|Atmosphere composition diagram.png|right|500px|The evolution and/or cycles of various elements in Earth's atmosphere.}}
'''Earth science''', or '''geoscience''', is primarily the study of [[planet]] [[Earth]]. More specifically, 'Earth sciences' refers to those sciences that deal with the study of the [[Earth]], its components and processes. Earth science includes those fields that study the firmament (the [[lithosphere]] or ground that makes up the land and the ocean floor), the waters (the [[hydrosphere]], which includes the [[ocean]]s, the seas, rivers, lakes and so forth), and the [[atmosphere]] itself, the air around us. The study of other planet's atmospheres and lithospheres is often considered part of the Earth sciences, especially in the case of [[terrestrial planets]]. As a consequence, the Earth sciences have a strong multidisciplinary character.


Each aspect of these domains may be divided even further into separate but interrelated disciplines of study. Geology which encompasses the lithosphere includes vulcanology (the study of volcanoes), hydrology (the study of water through the atmosphere, surface, subsurface and oceans) mineralogy (the study of the composition of the geosphere, specifically the mineral composition of the geosphere), and geomorphology (the study of the forces that shape the geosphere and their different forms).  
Earth science also can encompass and is related to those disciplines that study the same topics on extra-terrestrial bodies such as the moon, the planets and asteroids.
 
Each aspect of these domains may be divided even further into separate but interrelated disciplines of study. Geology, which encompasses the lithosphere, includes vulcanology (the study of volcanoes), hydrology (the study of water through the atmosphere, surface, subsurface and oceans), mineralogy (the study of the composition of the geosphere, specifically the mineral composition of the geosphere), and geomorphology (the study of the forces that shape the geosphere and their different forms).
 
[[Cosmography]] encompasses both the Earth sciences and [[astronomy]], i.e. both the Earth and everything outside of the Earth.


=="Spheres" of study==
=="Spheres" of study==
There are commonly three ‘spheres’ in the earth sciences. Atmosphere (from the Greek root ''atmos'' meaning ‘vapor’ and ''sphaira'', meaning ‘sphere’), lithosphere (Greek - ''lithos'' rock or ‘stone) and hydrosphere (Greek – ''hydros'', meaning ‘water’)  corresponding, respectively, to the gas, the solid ground and the water of the earth. There are other ‘spheres’ as well. The pedosphere (Greek ''pedon'' or ‘soil’) refers to the outerlayer of the lithosphere. It interacts directly with the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. The study of the glaciology, involves the glacial layer or cryosphere (Greek root ''kryos'', frost or ice)<ref>[http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/Woodhouse/ Woodhouse's English-Greek Dictionary] The University of Chicago Library. pp 944, 801, 719, 967, 791, 347</ref>
There are three main ‘spheres’ of study in the earth sciences:
* atmosphere (from the Greek root ''atmos'' meaning 'vapor' and ''sphaira'', meaning 'sphere'),
* lithosphere (Greek - ''lithos'' [[rock (geology)|rock]] or 'stone'),
* hydrosphere (Greek – ''hydros'', meaning 'water')   
corresponding, respectively, to the gas, the solid ground, and the water of the earth.
 
There are other ‘spheres’ but these are subdivisions of the main ones. The pedosphere (Greek ''pedon'' or ‘soil’) refers to the outer layer of the lithosphere. It interacts directly with the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. The [[cryosphere]] (Greek root ''kryos'', frost or ice) is the glacial layer, its study is called glaciology.<ref>[http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/Woodhouse/ Woodhouse's English-Greek Dictionary] The University of Chicago Library. pp 944, 801, 719, 967, 791, 347</ref>


==Disciplines and sub-disciplines==
==Disciplines and sub-disciplines==
There are a large number of subdisciplines and related disciplines that involve overlapping fields of study<ref> See for example [http://www.amonline.net.au/geoscience/about/branches.htm Branches of geoscience] Australian Museum of Geosciences</ref>. A perusal of university majors and journal topics demonstrates a fundamental characteristic of earth science: Although the geosciences are basically about the non-living aspects of the earth,<ref>[http://www.amonline.net.au/geoscience/about/index.htm What is geoscience?] Australian Museum of Geosciences</ref> the interaction non-living and living organisms, past and present, is also a very large area of study within earth sciences.  
There are a large number of subdisciplines and related disciplines that involve overlapping fields of study<ref> See for example [http://www.amonline.net.au/geoscience/about/branches.htm Branches of geoscience] Australian Museum of Geosciences</ref>. A perusal of university majors and journal topics demonstrates a fundamental characteristic of earth science: Although the geosciences are basically about the non-living aspects of the earth,<ref>[http://www.amonline.net.au/geoscience/about/index.htm What is geoscience?] Australian Museum of Geosciences</ref> the interaction non-living and living organisms, past and present, is also a very large area of study within earth sciences.  
==='''Geology'''===
 
{{main|geology}}
===Geology===
===='''Astrogeology''' ====
{{main|Geology}}
 
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#FFFFFF">
<tr><th>Sub-discipline</th><th>Brief description</th><th>Related fields</th></tr>
<tr><td>[[Astrogeology]]</td><td>The geology of extraterrestrial planets and materials</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Crystallography]]</td><td>The study of crystals</td><td>[[Mineralogy]]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Coal geology]]</td><td>The geology of [[coal]]</td><td>[[Economic geology]], [[Petroleum geology]]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Economic geology]]</td><td>The study of economically valuable mineral and ore deposits</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Engineering geology]]</td><td>The study of the geological characteristics of sites where engineering operations are going to be carried out</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Environmental geology]]</td><td>The study of how geological processes affect [[Natural environment|environmental]] conditions</td><td>[[Geochemistry]], [[Hydrogeology]]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Geochemistry]]</td><td>The study of the chemistry of earth's materials</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Geochronology]]</td><td>The study of geologic time</td><td>[[Stratigraphy]]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Gemology]]</td><td>the study of gemstones</td><td>[[Mineralogy]], [[Crystallography]]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Geological heritage]]</td><td>The study of conservation of geologically important sites</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Geomagnetism]]</td><td>The study of the magnetic properties of the earth</td><td>[[Geophysics]]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Geomorphology]]</td><td>The study of landforms</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Geophysics]]</td><td>the study of the physical properties of the earth</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Glaciology]]</td><td>The study of glaciers</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Hydrogeology]]</td><td>The study of subsurface waters</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Mineralogy]]</td><td>The study of minerals</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Petroleum geology]]</td><td>The geology of [[petroleum crude oil]]</td><td>[[Economic geology]], [[Coal geology]]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Petrology]]</td><td>the study of rocks</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Sedimentology]]</td><td>the study of sedimentation</td><td>[[Stratigraphy]], [[Sedimentary geology]]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Stratigraphy]]</td><td>the study of rock bodies, including their age and relationships</td><td>[[Sedimentology]], [[Geochronology]], [[Sedimentary geology]]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Seismology]]</td><td>The study of [[earthquake]]s and wave propagation through the earth</td><td>[[Geophysics]]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Structural geology]]</td><td>The study of geological structures produced by mechanical stress</td><td>[[Seismology]], [[Tectonics]]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Soil science]]</td><td>The study of [[soil]]s</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>[[Vulcanology]]</td><td>the study of volcanoes</td><td>[[Petrology]]</td>
</tr>
</table>
 
====Astrogeology ====
As the study of the geology of other planets and extraterrestrial materials, it is concerned with the geology (the surface as well as interior processes) of all solid bodies in the solar system, including the major planets and their satellites, asteroids, comets, and meteorites.<ref>[http://marswatch.tn.cornell.edu/rsm.html  Planetary geology] Manual of Remote Sensing. Department of Astronomy, Cornell University</ref><ref>“Astrogeology” Encyclopedia Britannica</ref> Astrogeology is synonymous with ‘exogeology’ and ‘planetary geology.’ Astrogeology utilises geological studies on Earth and incorporates remote sensing of planetary bodies (e.g. telescopy) to study such geological process as volcanism, floods, cratering, tectonics, and sand movement.<ref>[http://www.nasm.si.edu/ceps/about.cfm Center for Earth and Planetary Studies] National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian</ref>
As the study of the geology of other planets and extraterrestrial materials, it is concerned with the geology (the surface as well as interior processes) of all solid bodies in the solar system, including the major planets and their satellites, asteroids, comets, and meteorites.<ref>[http://marswatch.tn.cornell.edu/rsm.html  Planetary geology] Manual of Remote Sensing. Department of Astronomy, Cornell University</ref><ref>“Astrogeology” Encyclopedia Britannica</ref> Astrogeology is synonymous with ‘exogeology’ and ‘planetary geology.’ Astrogeology utilises geological studies on Earth and incorporates remote sensing of planetary bodies (e.g. telescopy) to study such geological process as volcanism, floods, cratering, tectonics, and sand movement.<ref>[http://www.nasm.si.edu/ceps/about.cfm Center for Earth and Planetary Studies] National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian</ref>


====Crystallography and mineralogy====  
====Physical geography====
The study of crystals and minerals.
A field within geography that studies patterns and processes of the hydrosphere, biosphere, atmosphere, and lithosphere to understand the physical topography and weather and the global patterns of life on Earth<ref>[http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.html Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition.] Pidwirny, M. (2006). Michael Pidwirny is Associate Professor in Unit of Biology and Physical Geography at Irving K. Barber School of Arts and Sciences, University of British Columbia, Okanagan, Kelowna, British Columbia</ref>. An inter-related discipline, it  draws upon geology, [[ecology]], and climatology particularly with regard to the study of the impact of weathering and erosion. Physical geography is usually contrasted with and complemented by its sister science [[human geography]].
====Economic geology====
the study of ore deposits.
====Engineering geology====
the study of the geological characteristics of sites where engineering operations are going to be carried out.
===Environmental geology/geosciences===
the study of how geological processes affect the environment.
====Exploration geology====
the search for new mineral deposits.
====Field geology====
====Geochemistry====
the study of the chemistry of the Earth.
====Geochronology====
the study of dating geological events.
====Gemmology====
the study of gemstones.
====Geological heritage====
The study of conservation of geologically important sites.
====Geomagnetism====
====Geomorphology====
The study of landforms. Fluvial geomorphology, for example, studies how human use impacts natural settings in a watershed and determines the shape of river channels. Fluvial geomorphology attempts to predict what physical changes will occur to a water channel in response to alterations in watershed conditions; and how changes will impact human infrastructure and fish habitat.<ref>[http://www.field-geology.com/ What is Fluvial Geomorphology?] Field Geology Services</ref>
====Geophysics====
the study of the physical properties of the Earth.
====Glaciology====
The study of glaciers, their formation, movement and environmental impact
====Hydrogeology====
the study of the movement of water through the Earth.
====Mining geology====
the study of the geology of a mine site.
====Petroleum geology and coal geology====
the study of ancient organic deposits (fossil fuels).
====[[Physical geography]]====
 
A field within geography which studies patterns and processes of the hydrosphere, biosphere, atmosphere, and lithosphere to understand the physical topography and weather and the global patterns of life on Earth. An inter-related discipline, it  draws upon geology, [[ecology]], and climatology particularly with regard to the impact of study of weathering and erosion. [[Physical geography]] is usually contrasted with and complemented by its sister science [[human geography]].


====Paleogeography and paleogeology ====
====Paleogeography and paleogeology ====
Paleogeography is the study of the earth’s surface in the distant past. “The study of paleogeography has two principle goals. The first goal is to map the past positions of the continents. The second goal is to illustrate the changing distribution of mountains, lowlands, shallow seas, and deep ocean basins through time.” <ref name=Scotese>[http://www.scotese.com/method1.htm The Paleogeographic Method] Christopher R. Scotese, University of Texas, Arlington</ref>
Paleogeography is the study of the earth’s surface in the distant past. “The study of paleogeography has two principle goals. The first goal is to map the past positions of the continents. The second goal is to illustrate the changing distribution of mountains, lowlands, shallow seas, and deep ocean basins through time.” <ref name=Scotese>[http://www.scotese.com/method1.htm The Paleogeographic Method] Christopher R. Scotese, University of Texas, Arlington</ref>


Paleogeology is the study of geologic conditions in the past which are manifest in the features of subterranean layers. Both employ analyses of long cylinders of bored rock or cores drilled from the earth which are charted and subjected to analytic comparisons.<ref>[http://www.geo.uu.nl/fg/palaeogeography/results/palaeogeography Holocene palaeogeographic development of the Rhine-Meuse delta] Faculty of Geosciences, Dept. of Physical Geography, University of Utrecht, Netherlands</ref>
Paleogeology is the study of geologic conditions in the past that are manifest in the features of subterranean layers. Both employ analyses of long cylinders of bored rock or cores drilled from the earth that are charted and subjected to analytic comparisons.<ref>[http://www.geo.uu.nl/fg/palaeogeography/results/palaeogeography Holocene palaeogeographic development of the Rhine-Meuse delta] Faculty of Geosciences, Dept. of Physical Geography, University of Utrecht, Netherlands</ref>
 
====Paleomagnetism====
====Paleomagnetism====
Paleomagnetism studies magnetic fields of the Earth in the past. Paleomagnetism measures the remnant magnetic field often preserved in iron-bearing rock formations. Paleomagnetic analysis can determine whether a rock was magnetized near the Pole or near the Equator and provides direct evidence of a continent's N-S (latitudinal) position, but not the E-W (longitudinal) position. <ref name=Scotese/>
Paleomagnetism studies magnetic fields of the Earth in the past. Paleomagnetism measures the remnant magnetic field often preserved in iron-bearing rock formations. Paleomagnetic analysis can determine whether a rock was magnetized near the Pole or near the Equator and provides direct evidence of a continent's N-S (latitudinal) position, but not the E-W (longitudinal) position. <ref name=Scotese/>


====Petrology====
By reconstructing the positional drift of masses of bedrock, geologists have been able to determine that the Earth's magnetic field has reversed polarity several times in the last 3 billion years.
the study of rocks (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary)
===='''Sedimentary geology'''====
Sedimentary geology encompasses the subdisciplines of sedimentology & stratigraphy. The field addresses all aspects of research into sediments and sedimentation processes at all spatial and temporal scales, sedimentary systems and basin analysis, subsurface analysis of sedimentary sequences, diagenesis (processes involving biological, physical and chemical changes in sediment which may then culminate in lithification), chemical sedimentology and numerical modelling (analysis of stratification facies).  


Sedimentology is the study of the production, composition, transport, and deposition of sediment.
===[[Oceanography]]===
 
The study of the earth’s oceans.
Stratigraphy is the study of existing layers or rocks and minerals and the process of layering (stratification). The primary focuses are the process of sedimentation  encompassing such dynamics as changes in sea level, tectonic activity, and climatic effects on the production of sediment (e.g. particulates carried in water runoff due to flooding) and material sequentially layered through volcanic activity.
 
There are other subfields as well. Lithostratigraphy is the study of strata to determine the history of geological processes and events through lithology, using well logs, mineral composition and quantity, grain size, texture and color. Chronostratigraphy is the study of the ages of strata through comparison, and correlation of separated strata to elucidate their relative and absolute ages. The interdisciplinary biologic stratigraphy (or biostratigraphy), employs the analysis of plant and animal fossils using principles of paleontology and stratigraphy to date and correlate strata using evidence as may be presented by such organisms as pollen and spores, marine microfossils (e.g. diatoms, foraminifera, and nannofossils) to determine the absolute and relative age and the environment that existed during deposition of a particular formation.<ref>[http://www.uga.edu/~strata/sequence/accommodation.html University of Georgia Stratigraphy Lab]</ref><ref>[http://strata.geol.sc.edu/seqstrat.html USC Sequence Stratigraphy Web] University of South Carolina, Dept. of Geology</ref><ref>[http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/rp/rppdf/l04-089.pdf A numerical model of sediment-laden turbulent flow in an open channel] National Research Council Canada</ref><ref>[http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/default.cfm Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary]</ref><ref>[http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary Glossary of meteorology] American Meteorlogical Society</ref>


====Seismology====
===Limnology===
the study of how waves move through the Earth, including earthquakes.
====Structural geology====
the study of geological structures.
====Tectonics/Structural geology====
the study of the major structural features of the Earth or the broad structure of a region.
====Soil science====
====Vulcanology====
the study of volcanoes.
 
==='''Oceanography'''===
The study of the earth’s oceans.
==='''Limnology'''===
The branch of hydrology that pertains to the study of fresh water bodies: lakes, ponds, and streams, reservoirs, rivers, wetlands, and groundwater. Limnology also encompasses salt water in-land lakes. Limnology is derived from the Greek word ''limne'' - 'marsh' or 'pond' and the Latin ''limnaea'' – 'thing pertaining to a marsh'.
The branch of hydrology that pertains to the study of fresh water bodies: lakes, ponds, and streams, reservoirs, rivers, wetlands, and groundwater. Limnology also encompasses salt water in-land lakes. Limnology is derived from the Greek word ''limne'' - 'marsh' or 'pond' and the Latin ''limnaea'' – 'thing pertaining to a marsh'.


Integrating physical, chemical, and biological components, limnology studies the biogeochemical changes of standing (lentic) water ecosystems: their interactions within and water movement through drainage basins and their exchanges with the atmosphere. Inland water ecosystems are an integral component of a system that encompasses drainage area and atmosphere, running (lotic) waters and ground waters, chemical changes and interactions that occur en route, and includes components of the land being transported to the water.<ref>http://aslo.org/education/limnology.html What is Limnology?] Robert G. Wetzel, University of North Carolina. Advancing the Science of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO)</ref>
Integrating physical, chemical, and biological components, limnology studies the biogeochemical changes of standing (lentic) water ecosystems: their interactions within and water movement through drainage basins and their exchanges with the atmosphere. Inland water ecosystems are an integral component of a system that encompasses drainage area and atmosphere, running (lotic) waters and ground waters, chemical changes and interactions that occur en route, and includes components of the land being transported to the water.<ref>[http://aslo.org/education/limnology.html What is Limnology?] Robert G. Wetzel, University of North Carolina. Advancing the Science of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO)</ref>


==='''Hydrology'''===
===[[Hydrology]]===
The interdisciplinary study of the movement, characteristics and distribution of water, surface-water (fresh water and salt water), groundwater, and water-quality <ref>[http://www.aihydro.org/ American Institute of Hydrology]</ref><ref>[http://www.hydrology.org.uk/ British Hydrological Society]</ref> Subdisciplines include:
The interdisciplinary study of the movement, characteristics and distribution of water, surface-water (fresh water and salt water), groundwater, and water-quality <ref>[http://www.aihydro.org/ American Institute of Hydrology]</ref><ref>[http://www.hydrology.org.uk/ British Hydrological Society]</ref>
*Chemical hydrology: the study of the chemical characteristics of water. Also called  hydrochemistry,  chemical hydrology deals with the chemical characteristics of the surface water (freshwater and marine) and subterranean water. Water is a chemical solvent and, interacting chemically with materials with which it comes into contact, can dissolve many elements.
*Drainage basin management hydrology.
*Ecohydrology (the study of interactions between organisms and the hydrologic cycle.
*Engineering Hydrology
*Global hydrology
*Groundwater Hydrology
*Hydrobiology
*Hydrogeology is the study of the presence and movement of water in aquifers.
*Hydroinformatics is the adaptation of information technology to hydrology and water resources applications.
*Hydrometeorology is the study of the transfer of water and energy between land and water body surfaces and the lower atmosphere.
*Isotope hydrology is the study of the isotopic signatures of water.
*Operational Hydrology
*Qualitative Hydrology
*Sedimentology
*Surface hydrology is the study of hydrologic processes that operate at or near the Earth's surface.
*Water resources development and management


<ref>[http://www.cig.ensmp.fr/~hubert/glu/HINDENT.HTM International Glossary of hydrology]</ref><ref>[http://water.usgs.gov/ Water resources of the United States] USGA</ref><ref>[http://www.eawag.ch/forschung/index_EN Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology]</ref><ref>[http://hydram.epfl.ch/VICAIRE/ Virtual campus in hydrology and water resources management] A cooperative of Institute of Soil and Water resources Management (Hydrology and Land Improvement Laboratory) EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland; Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, Romania (TUCEB); University Timisoara, Faculty of Hydrotechnics, Romania; Technical University "Gheorghe Asachi" of Iasi (T.U.I.), Romania; Sophia University "St Kliment Ohridski", Geology and Geography Faculty ; National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology ; Institute of Water Problems, Bulgaria; Kharkiv State Technical University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (KSTUCA), Ukrainia; Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Ecological Problems (USRIEP), Ukrainia; Technical University of Moldova, Faculty of Urban Engineering and Architecture, Chisinau, Moldova</ref>
===Atmospheric sciences===
====Meteorology====
{{Image|NASACompositeSatelliteImageOfEarth.jpg|right|300px|Composite satellite photos of Earth.}}
Meteorology is the scientific study of the [[atmosphere]] and atmospheric processes<ref>[http://www.ametsoc.org/amsedu/wes/glossary.html#M Glossary of the American Meteorological Society]</ref> including: weather studies and weather forecasting; studies of the related [[Oceanography|oceanic]] and [[Hydrology|hydrological sciences]]; and studies of [[air quality]] and the [[Atmospheric dispersion modeling|atmospheric dispersion of air pollution]].<ref>[http://www.ametsoc.org/AtmosCareers/slices/careers98-3a.html Applied Meteorology] (from the website of the [[American Meteorological Society]])</ref>


==='''Atmospheric sciences'''===
====Meteorology====
====Climatology====
====Climatology====
The study of the [[climate]] - the long-term patterns in the weather and changes therein.
A prominent area of research in climatology focuses on [[global warming]] to determine its causes and potential effects. Current theories concern natural causes, such as the effects of the sun (i.e. [[heliogenic global warming]]), or man-made (i.e. [[anthropogenic global warming]]).


See also [[effect of sun angle on climate]].
See also [[effect of sun angle on climate]].
====Paleoclimatology====
====Paleoclimatology====
Paleoclimatology<ref> Spelling of ‘paleo-‘ is commonly ‘palaeo-‘ in Common Wealth countries, e.g. Australia, the UK, etc.</ref> is the study of ancient climates. Different types of rock and minerals form under specific climatic conditions: wet and dry, warm and cool. This is also true of ancient life forms whose presence may be determined from the fossil record. As the earth’s surface changes climatically and continents move tectonically, the amount of sunlight will vary and effect conditions on the surface, leading to changes which then become buried in the strata. Coal deposits develop under wet conditions, bauxite deposits are evident where it was warm and wet, evaporites and calcretes occur under warm and dry conditions, and tillites where it was wet and cool. The ancient distribution of different rock types provide evidence of how the global climate has changed through time and how the continents have travelled across climatic belts. <ref name=Scotese/>
Paleoclimatology<ref> Spelling of ‘paleo-‘ is commonly ‘palaeo-‘ in Common Wealth countries, e.g. Australia, the UK, etc.</ref> is the study of ancient climates. Different types of rock and minerals form under specific climatic conditions: wet and dry, warm and cool. This is also true of ancient life forms whose presence may be determined from the fossil record. As the earth’s surface changes climatically and continents move tectonically, the amount of sunlight will vary and effect conditions on the surface, leading to changes that then become buried in the strata. Coal deposits develop under wet conditions, bauxite deposits are evident where it was warm and wet, evaporites and calcretes occur under warm and dry conditions, and tillites where it was wet and cool. The ancient distribution of different rock types provide evidence of how the global climate has changed through time and how the continents have travelled across climatic belts. <ref name=Scotese/>


=='''Interdisciplinary divisions'''==
==Interdisciplinary divisions==
====Geoarcheology====
====Geoarcheology====
the study of archeological questions with the use of geographic and geologic methods. Geoarcheology focuses in particular on the reconstruction of (pre-)historic landscapes and the origins of raw materials.
====Geomicrobiology====
====Geomicrobiology====
Studies microbes and their interactions in geologic systems
Studies microbes and their interactions in geologic systems
Line 126: Line 132:
====Paleontology====
====Paleontology====
the study of ancient life forms.
the study of ancient life forms.
===Palynology===
====[[Biostratigraphy]]====
the study of ancient spores and pollens.
This field involves the identification of fossils and their position relative to their occurrences in space and time. Fossil groups are confined to specific sedimentary layers that reflect changes in the earth’s [[Natural environment|environment]]. Fossils only occur in the lithosphere having been formed in the terrestrial (land), freshwater and marine (sea) environments. Biostratigraphy employs fossils of larger animals but the predominant area of study concerns microfossils such as foraminifera, calcareous nannofossils, and palynomorphs. Microfossils are also used in paleoclimatology, biogeography, and studies of thermal maturation.
 
Biostratigraphy can also be employed to ascertain ancient land forms in that seismic and tectonic activity may have shifted large areas of deposited materials and corresponding layers lying at varying depths may show specific fossils known to have been deposited at the same time. By correlating these fossil depositions, strata that appear to be deposited at different times may be shown to have been formed at the same time and then later shifted through gradual or sudden changes. An example would be the fossils found in mountain ranges that may also occur in adjacent lower lying plains. Biostratigraphical studies can then be used to show that the mountains originally were contiguous with the plains and later thrust upward by tectonic activity. <ref name=UCMPPetExplor>[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fosrec/ONeill.html Using Microfossils in petroleum exploration] Brian J. O’Neill. University of California Museum of Paleontology</ref><ref name=JG>[http://www.xs4all.nl/~strats/biostrat.htm Biostratigraphy] Els Gervais and Hubert Jansen, J & G Consultants</ref>
 
====[[Palynology]]====
The science of the study of contemporary and fossil palynomorphs as well as associated particulate organic matter (POM) in sedimentary strata. Palynology is an interdisciplinary field overlapping with geological and biological sciences. Palynomorphs are microscopic, decay-resistant remains of certain plants and animals.  


=='''References'''==
Palynomorphs are used to establish relative dating for strata, for the study of ancient climates, and for determining the possible presence of petroleum or gas <ref name=UAZ>[http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/ Palynology at the University of Arizona]</ref><ref name=JG/><ref name=UCMPPetExplor/>
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=='''Resources'''==
====Stratigraphical palynology====
*Australian Museum of Geosciences [http://www.amonline.net.au/geoscience/]
Stratigraphical palynology involves identification, distribution, and abundance of palynomorphs to correlate the sequence of sedimentary depositions in time and place, and to provide chronological references for these sequences. Stratigraphic palynology is applied to sediments of all ages. It is considered a subdiscipline or inter-disciplinary field of  
*Geoscience Information Society [http://www.geoinfo.org/]
biostratigraphy, micropalaeontology, paleobotany, paleopalynology. <ref name=UAZ/><ref name=JG/>
*American Geological Institute [http://www.agiweb.org/]
*Geological Society of New Zealand [http://www.gsnz.org.nz/]
*University of Missouri-Kansas City, Geoscience Department [http://cas.umkc.edu/geo/]
*Kansas University Geology Department [http://www.geo.ku.edu/]
*Center for Earth and Planetary Studies, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian [http://www.nasm.si.edu/ceps/]
*United States Geological Services (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature [http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/]
*Minerology Database [http://webmineral.com/] contains 4,442 individual mineral species descriptions with links and a comprehensive image library.
*Minerology Database [http://www.mindat.org/] localities, photos and data
*Links for Minerologists [http://www.mineralogie.uni-wuerzburg.de/links/teach/crysteach.html Introduction to Crystallography] Institute of Mineralogy, University of Würzburg,
*University of Texas, Austin [http://www.scotese.com/ Paleomap Project]


[[Category: CZ Live]]
==References==
[[Category:Earth Sciences Workgroup]]
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Latest revision as of 16:00, 9 August 2024

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https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Earth_science&printable=yes
This editable Main Article is under development and subject to a disclaimer.
This article is about Earth science. For other uses of the term Earth, please see Earth (disambiguation).
(PD) Diagram: Philippe Rekacewcz (U.S. Climate Change Science Program)
The evolution and/or cycles of various elements in Earth's atmosphere.

Earth science, or geoscience, is primarily the study of planet Earth. More specifically, 'Earth sciences' refers to those sciences that deal with the study of the Earth, its components and processes. Earth science includes those fields that study the firmament (the lithosphere or ground that makes up the land and the ocean floor), the waters (the hydrosphere, which includes the oceans, the seas, rivers, lakes and so forth), and the atmosphere itself, the air around us. The study of other planet's atmospheres and lithospheres is often considered part of the Earth sciences, especially in the case of terrestrial planets. As a consequence, the Earth sciences have a strong multidisciplinary character.

Earth science also can encompass and is related to those disciplines that study the same topics on extra-terrestrial bodies such as the moon, the planets and asteroids.

Each aspect of these domains may be divided even further into separate but interrelated disciplines of study. Geology, which encompasses the lithosphere, includes vulcanology (the study of volcanoes), hydrology (the study of water through the atmosphere, surface, subsurface and oceans), mineralogy (the study of the composition of the geosphere, specifically the mineral composition of the geosphere), and geomorphology (the study of the forces that shape the geosphere and their different forms).

Cosmography encompasses both the Earth sciences and astronomy, i.e. both the Earth and everything outside of the Earth.

"Spheres" of study

There are three main ‘spheres’ of study in the earth sciences:

  • atmosphere (from the Greek root atmos meaning 'vapor' and sphaira, meaning 'sphere'),
  • lithosphere (Greek - lithos rock or 'stone'),
  • hydrosphere (Greek – hydros, meaning 'water')

corresponding, respectively, to the gas, the solid ground, and the water of the earth.

There are other ‘spheres’ but these are subdivisions of the main ones. The pedosphere (Greek pedon or ‘soil’) refers to the outer layer of the lithosphere. It interacts directly with the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. The cryosphere (Greek root kryos, frost or ice) is the glacial layer, its study is called glaciology.[1]

Disciplines and sub-disciplines

There are a large number of subdisciplines and related disciplines that involve overlapping fields of study[2]. A perusal of university majors and journal topics demonstrates a fundamental characteristic of earth science: Although the geosciences are basically about the non-living aspects of the earth,[3] the interaction non-living and living organisms, past and present, is also a very large area of study within earth sciences.

Geology

For more information, see: Geology.


Sub-disciplineBrief descriptionRelated fields
AstrogeologyThe geology of extraterrestrial planets and materials 
CrystallographyThe study of crystalsMineralogy
Coal geologyThe geology of coalEconomic geology, Petroleum geology
Economic geologyThe study of economically valuable mineral and ore deposits 
Engineering geologyThe study of the geological characteristics of sites where engineering operations are going to be carried out 
Environmental geologyThe study of how geological processes affect environmental conditionsGeochemistry, Hydrogeology
GeochemistryThe study of the chemistry of earth's materials 
GeochronologyThe study of geologic timeStratigraphy
Gemologythe study of gemstonesMineralogy, Crystallography
Geological heritageThe study of conservation of geologically important sites 
GeomagnetismThe study of the magnetic properties of the earthGeophysics
GeomorphologyThe study of landforms 
Geophysicsthe study of the physical properties of the earth 
GlaciologyThe study of glaciers 
HydrogeologyThe study of subsurface waters 
MineralogyThe study of minerals 
Petroleum geologyThe geology of petroleum crude oilEconomic geology, Coal geology
Petrologythe study of rocks 
Sedimentologythe study of sedimentationStratigraphy, Sedimentary geology
Stratigraphythe study of rock bodies, including their age and relationshipsSedimentology, Geochronology, Sedimentary geology
SeismologyThe study of earthquakes and wave propagation through the earthGeophysics
Structural geologyThe study of geological structures produced by mechanical stressSeismology, Tectonics
Soil scienceThe study of soils 
Vulcanologythe study of volcanoesPetrology

Astrogeology

As the study of the geology of other planets and extraterrestrial materials, it is concerned with the geology (the surface as well as interior processes) of all solid bodies in the solar system, including the major planets and their satellites, asteroids, comets, and meteorites.[4][5] Astrogeology is synonymous with ‘exogeology’ and ‘planetary geology.’ Astrogeology utilises geological studies on Earth and incorporates remote sensing of planetary bodies (e.g. telescopy) to study such geological process as volcanism, floods, cratering, tectonics, and sand movement.[6]

Physical geography

A field within geography that studies patterns and processes of the hydrosphere, biosphere, atmosphere, and lithosphere to understand the physical topography and weather and the global patterns of life on Earth[7]. An inter-related discipline, it draws upon geology, ecology, and climatology particularly with regard to the study of the impact of weathering and erosion. Physical geography is usually contrasted with and complemented by its sister science human geography.

Paleogeography and paleogeology

Paleogeography is the study of the earth’s surface in the distant past. “The study of paleogeography has two principle goals. The first goal is to map the past positions of the continents. The second goal is to illustrate the changing distribution of mountains, lowlands, shallow seas, and deep ocean basins through time.” [8]

Paleogeology is the study of geologic conditions in the past that are manifest in the features of subterranean layers. Both employ analyses of long cylinders of bored rock or cores drilled from the earth that are charted and subjected to analytic comparisons.[9]

Paleomagnetism

Paleomagnetism studies magnetic fields of the Earth in the past. Paleomagnetism measures the remnant magnetic field often preserved in iron-bearing rock formations. Paleomagnetic analysis can determine whether a rock was magnetized near the Pole or near the Equator and provides direct evidence of a continent's N-S (latitudinal) position, but not the E-W (longitudinal) position. [8]

By reconstructing the positional drift of masses of bedrock, geologists have been able to determine that the Earth's magnetic field has reversed polarity several times in the last 3 billion years.

Oceanography

The study of the earth’s oceans.

Limnology

The branch of hydrology that pertains to the study of fresh water bodies: lakes, ponds, and streams, reservoirs, rivers, wetlands, and groundwater. Limnology also encompasses salt water in-land lakes. Limnology is derived from the Greek word limne - 'marsh' or 'pond' and the Latin limnaea – 'thing pertaining to a marsh'.

Integrating physical, chemical, and biological components, limnology studies the biogeochemical changes of standing (lentic) water ecosystems: their interactions within and water movement through drainage basins and their exchanges with the atmosphere. Inland water ecosystems are an integral component of a system that encompasses drainage area and atmosphere, running (lotic) waters and ground waters, chemical changes and interactions that occur en route, and includes components of the land being transported to the water.[10]

Hydrology

The interdisciplinary study of the movement, characteristics and distribution of water, surface-water (fresh water and salt water), groundwater, and water-quality [11][12]

Atmospheric sciences

Meteorology

(PD) Photo: National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Composite satellite photos of Earth.

Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere and atmospheric processes[13] including: weather studies and weather forecasting; studies of the related oceanic and hydrological sciences; and studies of air quality and the atmospheric dispersion of air pollution.[14]

Climatology

The study of the climate - the long-term patterns in the weather and changes therein.

A prominent area of research in climatology focuses on global warming to determine its causes and potential effects. Current theories concern natural causes, such as the effects of the sun (i.e. heliogenic global warming), or man-made (i.e. anthropogenic global warming).

See also effect of sun angle on climate.

Paleoclimatology

Paleoclimatology[15] is the study of ancient climates. Different types of rock and minerals form under specific climatic conditions: wet and dry, warm and cool. This is also true of ancient life forms whose presence may be determined from the fossil record. As the earth’s surface changes climatically and continents move tectonically, the amount of sunlight will vary and effect conditions on the surface, leading to changes that then become buried in the strata. Coal deposits develop under wet conditions, bauxite deposits are evident where it was warm and wet, evaporites and calcretes occur under warm and dry conditions, and tillites where it was wet and cool. The ancient distribution of different rock types provide evidence of how the global climate has changed through time and how the continents have travelled across climatic belts. [8]

Interdisciplinary divisions

Geoarcheology

the study of archeological questions with the use of geographic and geologic methods. Geoarcheology focuses in particular on the reconstruction of (pre-)historic landscapes and the origins of raw materials.

Geomicrobiology

Studies microbes and their interactions in geologic systems

Paleobiogeography

Paleobiogeography studies microbial fossils and their interactions in geologic systems. The distribution of plants and animals in the ancient past helps reveal the latitudinal and relative position of the continents. Ancient plant organisms reflect temperature and rainfall in the distant past. The similarity or dissimilarity of life on different continents can be used to estimate their geographic proximity and may reveal when these continents were connected or isolated from each other. [8]

Paleobotany

the study of ancient plant life. Paleontology may be divided further into vertebrate, invertebrate and micropaleontology

Paleoecology

the study of ancient environments.

Paleontology

the study of ancient life forms.

Biostratigraphy

This field involves the identification of fossils and their position relative to their occurrences in space and time. Fossil groups are confined to specific sedimentary layers that reflect changes in the earth’s environment. Fossils only occur in the lithosphere having been formed in the terrestrial (land), freshwater and marine (sea) environments. Biostratigraphy employs fossils of larger animals but the predominant area of study concerns microfossils such as foraminifera, calcareous nannofossils, and palynomorphs. Microfossils are also used in paleoclimatology, biogeography, and studies of thermal maturation.

Biostratigraphy can also be employed to ascertain ancient land forms in that seismic and tectonic activity may have shifted large areas of deposited materials and corresponding layers lying at varying depths may show specific fossils known to have been deposited at the same time. By correlating these fossil depositions, strata that appear to be deposited at different times may be shown to have been formed at the same time and then later shifted through gradual or sudden changes. An example would be the fossils found in mountain ranges that may also occur in adjacent lower lying plains. Biostratigraphical studies can then be used to show that the mountains originally were contiguous with the plains and later thrust upward by tectonic activity. [16][17]

Palynology

The science of the study of contemporary and fossil palynomorphs as well as associated particulate organic matter (POM) in sedimentary strata. Palynology is an interdisciplinary field overlapping with geological and biological sciences. Palynomorphs are microscopic, decay-resistant remains of certain plants and animals.

Palynomorphs are used to establish relative dating for strata, for the study of ancient climates, and for determining the possible presence of petroleum or gas [18][17][16]

Stratigraphical palynology

Stratigraphical palynology involves identification, distribution, and abundance of palynomorphs to correlate the sequence of sedimentary depositions in time and place, and to provide chronological references for these sequences. Stratigraphic palynology is applied to sediments of all ages. It is considered a subdiscipline or inter-disciplinary field of biostratigraphy, micropalaeontology, paleobotany, paleopalynology. [18][17]

References

  1. ↑ Woodhouse's English-Greek Dictionary The University of Chicago Library. pp 944, 801, 719, 967, 791, 347
  2. ↑ See for example Branches of geoscience Australian Museum of Geosciences
  3. ↑ What is geoscience? Australian Museum of Geosciences
  4. ↑ Planetary geology Manual of Remote Sensing. Department of Astronomy, Cornell University
  5. ↑ “Astrogeology” Encyclopedia Britannica
  6. ↑ Center for Earth and Planetary Studies National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian
  7. ↑ Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition. Pidwirny, M. (2006). Michael Pidwirny is Associate Professor in Unit of Biology and Physical Geography at Irving K. Barber School of Arts and Sciences, University of British Columbia, Okanagan, Kelowna, British Columbia
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 The Paleogeographic Method Christopher R. Scotese, University of Texas, Arlington
  9. ↑ Holocene palaeogeographic development of the Rhine-Meuse delta Faculty of Geosciences, Dept. of Physical Geography, University of Utrecht, Netherlands
  10. ↑ What is Limnology? Robert G. Wetzel, University of North Carolina. Advancing the Science of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO)
  11. ↑ American Institute of Hydrology
  12. ↑ British Hydrological Society
  13. ↑ Glossary of the American Meteorological Society
  14. ↑ Applied Meteorology (from the website of the American Meteorological Society)
  15. ↑ Spelling of ‘paleo-‘ is commonly ‘palaeo-‘ in Common Wealth countries, e.g. Australia, the UK, etc.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Using Microfossils in petroleum exploration Brian J. O’Neill. University of California Museum of Paleontology
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Biostratigraphy Els Gervais and Hubert Jansen, J & G Consultants
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Palynology at the University of Arizona
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